News Europe updates 14/01/2022 2

Na ogromnykh prostranstvakh Yuzhnoy Ameriki portugal'tsy i ispantsy ustanovili rezhim zhestochayshey kolonial'noy ekspluatatsii. Korennoye naseleniye bylo fakticheski lisheno vsekh prav, i prezhde vsego prav na zemlyu — glavnyy istochnik yego sushchestvovaniya. Mnogiye zemli byli pozhalovany monarkhami zakhvatchikam-kolonizatoram, postepenno proiskhodilo zakrepleniye za novymi zemlevladel'tsami — portugal'tsami i ispantsami — mestnykh zhiteley-indeytsev. Ikh oblagali razlichnymi podatyami, zastavlyali otbyvat' trudovuyu povinnost' na rudnikakh, plantatsiyakh, stroitel'stve dorog. Spetsificheskoy formoy khozyaystvovaniya kolonizatorov stalo tak nazyvayemoye plantatsionnoye rabstvo. Posle togo kak v rezul'tate neposil'noy ekspluatatsii, bolezney i goloda korennoye naseleniye Ameriki zametno sokratilos', kolonizatory nachali vvozit' v latinoamerikanskiye strany rabov, zakhvachennykh ili kuplennykh v Afrike. Plantatsionnoye rabstvo poluchilo naibol'sheye razvitiye v Brazilii, gde vyrashchivalis' sakharnyy trostnik, ris, kukuruza i tabak, a takzhe v Vest-Indii, Venesuele i Novoy Granade. V rabstvo obrashchali i mestnykh zhiteley. Trud rabov ispol'zovalsya ne tol'ko na plantatsiyakh, no i na rudnikakh. Latinskaya Amerika interesovala Portugaliyu, Ispaniyu i drugiye kolonial'nyye derzhavy prezhde vsego kak istochnik zolota i drugikh dragotsennykh metallov, za kotorymi snaryazhalis' pervyye zakhvatnicheskiye ekspeditsii, a takzhe produktov plantatsionnogo khozyaystva. Latinoamerikanskiye strany dolgoye vremya byli lisheny kakoy-libo khozyaystvennoy samostoyatel'nosti; sushchestvovali zhestochayshiye zaprety na vyrashchivaniye tselogo ryada sel'skokhozyaystvennykh kul'tur, na torgovlyu mezhdu soboy. V Severnoy i Tsentral'noy Amerike glavnymi kolonial'nymi konkurentami stali Ispaniya, Angliya i Frantsiya. Obostreniye kolonial'noy konkurentsii bylo svyazano s razvitiyem v Yevrope s serediny XVI v. novoy formy kapitalisticheskogo predprinimatel'stva — manufaktury. V XVII v. v Anglii, Gollandii i Frantsii voznikali tak nazyvayemyye Ost-Indskiye kompanii (britanskaya, 1600—1858 gg.; gollandskaya, 1602—1798 gg.; frantsuzskaya, 1664— 1770 i 1785—1793 gg.), kotoryye poluchili pravo na zakhvaty novykh zemel' na Vostoke, ikh prakticheski beskontrol'nuyu ekspluatatsiyu i monopol'nuyu torgovlyu. Kolonial'noye sopernichestvo stalo odnoy iz glavnykh prichin ozhestochonneyshikh voyn mezhdu yevropeyskimi stranami: za «ispanskoye nasledstvo» (1701—1714 gg.), za «avstriyskoye nasledstvo» (1740—1748 gg.), Semiletney voyny (1756— 1763 gg.), napoleonovskikh voyn. Chashche v kolonial'nom sopernichestve vyigryvala Angliya, otobravshaya u Frantsii yeyo krupneyshiye vladeniya v Kanade i territorii na vostochnom poberezh'ye Indostana. V 50—60-ye gg. XVIII v. Britanskaya Ost-Indskaya kompaniya zakhvatila Bengaliyu, odnu iz naiboleye ekonomicheski razvitykh chastey Indii, polozhiv tem samym nachalo polnomu kolonial'nomu podchineniyu etoy velikoy aziatskoy strany. Komanduyushchiy voyskami kompanii Robert Klayv vynudil pravitelya Bengalii podpisat' neravnopravnyy dogovor, kazna strany byla razgrablena, yeyo naseleniye oblozheno neposil'nymi nalogami, kompaniya prisvoila sebe pravo isklyuchitel'noy torgovli s drugimi stranami i territoriyami. V 70-ye gg. vlast' v Bengalii polnost'yu pereshla v yeyo ruki; prodolzhaya nachatyye zavoyevaniya, kompaniya v posledney chetverti XVIII v. razgromila Maysurskoye gosudarstvo na yuge Indii, razvyazala zakhvatnicheskiye voyny protiv Konfederatsii maratkhskikh knyazhestv i Sikkhskogo gosudarstva — yeshcho sokhranyavshikh nezavisimost' krupnykh feodal'nykh ob"yedineniy na territorii Indii.

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In the vast expanses of South America, the Portuguese and Spaniards established a regime of the most severe colonial exploitation. The indigenous population was actually deprived of all rights, and above all the rights to land - the main source of their existence. Many lands were granted by the monarchs to the invaders-colonizers, and the local Indians were gradually assigned to the new landowners - the Portuguese and Spaniards. They were subjected to various taxes, forced to serve labor service in mines, plantations, and road construction.

The so-called plantation slavery became a specific form of economic management of the colonialists. After the indigenous population of America was noticeably reduced as a result of unbearable exploitation, disease and hunger, the colonialists began to import into Latin American countries slaves captured or bought in Africa. Plantation slavery was most developed in Brazil, where sugar cane, rice, corn and tobacco were grown, as well as in the West Indies, Venezuela and New Granada. Local residents were also enslaved. Slave labor was used not only on plantations, but also in mines.

Latin America was of interest to Portugal, Spain and other colonial powers primarily as a source of gold and other precious metals, for which the first aggressive expeditions were equipped, as well as plantation products. The Latin American countries for a long time were deprived of any economic independence; there were severe bans on the cultivation of a number of agricultural crops, on trade among themselves.

In North and Central America, Spain, England and France became the main colonial competitors. The aggravation of colonial competition was associated with the development in Europe from the middle of the 16th century. a new form of capitalist enterprise - manufactory. In the 17th century in England, Holland and France, the so-called East India Companies arose (British, 1600-1858; Dutch, 1602-1798; French, 1664-1770 and 1785-1793), which received the right to seize new lands in the East, their virtually uncontrolled exploitation and monopoly trade. Colonial rivalry became one of the main reasons for the fiercest wars between European countries: for the "Spanish inheritance" (1701-1714), for the "Austrian inheritance" (1740-1748), the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), Napoleonic wars. More often in colonial rivalry, England won, having taken away from France its largest possessions in Canada and territories on the east coast of Hindustan. In the 50-60s. 18th century The British East India Company seized Bengal, one of the most economically developed parts of India, thereby laying the foundation for the complete colonial subjugation of this great Asian country. The commander of the company's troops, Robert Clive, forced the ruler of Bengal to sign an unequal treaty, the country's treasury was plundered, its population was taxed with excessive taxes, the company arrogated to itself the right of exclusive trade with other countries and territories. In the 70s. power in Bengal completely passed into her hands; continuing the conquests begun, the company in the last quarter of the 18th century. defeated the Mysore state in southern India, unleashed aggressive wars against the Confederation of Maratha principalities and the Sikh state - large feudal associations that still retained independence in India.

An acute struggle for the possession of Indonesia - one of the richest regions of the East - unfolded between the Dutch and British East India companies. Here the British had to give way. By the middle of the XVIII century. almost all of Java and a number of other islands were in the hands of the Dutch, but the country was finally conquered only in the 19th century.

In a different way was the colonization of Australia. After James Cook explored the east coast of the fifth continent in 1770, the British government decided to make the new lands a place of exile for convicts, because. the former places of exile of convicts from England, Scotland and Ireland - the American colonies - after the start of their war of independence were "closed". Meanwhile, English prisons were overcrowded and crime continued to rise. The first British colony in Australia - New South Wales - was formed in February 1788. Its initial population was 1018 people: officials, soldiers and exiles. Among the latter there were only 12 carpenters, one bricklayer and not a single person familiar with peasant labor ...

An important milestone in the development of colonialism was the events of the late 18th century: the industrial revolution in Europe, the war for independence in North America in 1775-1783. and the French Revolution of 1789-1794. Europe sought to turn its overseas possessions into markets for industrial products, a source of raw materials and food. Thus began the gradual drawing of the colonies into the emerging world capitalist market relations.

The War of Independence in North America was a direct consequence of the growing contradictions between the mother countries and the colonies, especially the settler ones, such as the American colonies of England. The colonies quickly gained strength, striving for economic and political independence, while the metropolises continued to see in them only sources of raw materials and huge incomes, and not equal partners in any way. In 1763, England forbade, for example, independent migration to lands seized from France in the west of the country; colonists could only get manufactured goods from England, at prices set by England, and sell raw materials only to England. The war that broke out in 1775 ended with the Treaty of Versailles in 1783; England recognized the independence of her American possessions, which soon formed a single independent state - the United States of America.

In the 70s. it was the turn of Egypt, which, while remaining part of the Ottoman Empire, sought to pursue an independent policy. The construction of the Suez Canal (1859-1869) brought huge benefits to Europe (the shortest route from the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean was opened) and devastated the Egyptian treasury. Egypt found itself in financial bondage with France and England, which established over it in 1876-1882. so-called dual control. The country was plundered in the most merciless way, more than two-thirds of state revenues were spent on paying off foreign debts. About dual control, the Egyptians bitterly joked: “Have you ever seen a dog and a cat taking a mouse for a walk together?” In 1882 Egypt was occupied by British troops, and in 1914 England established its own protectorate over it. In 1922, the protectorate was abolished, Egypt was proclaimed an independent and sovereign state, but this was independence on paper, since England completely controlled the economic, foreign policy and military spheres of his life.

By the beginning of the XX century. over 90% of the territory of Africa belonged to the largest colonial powers: England, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Portugal, Spain.

At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. colonial rivalry and the struggle for spheres of influence in the world escalated. In 1898, the American-Spanish war broke out, as a result of which the United States captured the Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, the Hawaiian Islands and established control over Cuba, which received formal independence. After the Russo-Japanese War, Japan established de facto dominance over Korea and Manchuria. Anglo-Boer War 1899-1902 completed the "gathering" of lands in southern Africa by England (see article "Boers"). European powers actively intervened in the economic and political life of the countries that were part of the decaying Ottoman Empire.

After the First World War, one of the main reasons for which was colonial rivalry, there was a territorial redivision of the world. In 1919, the League of Nations was created, on behalf of which trusteeship was established over the possessions of Germany and Turkey. The colonies of the vanquished were taken over by the victors. Australia received German possessions in New Guinea, Germany's African colonies went to England (Tanganyika, part of Togo and Cameroon), Belgium (Rwanda and Burundi), France (part of Togo and Cameroon), the Union of South Africa (Southwest Africa). France also received Syria and Lebanon, which belonged to Turkey, and Japan, which hardly participated in the war, bargained for the German port of Qingdao in China and the islands in the Pacific Ocean.

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The best part of European and American society has done a lot to help the backward peoples get rid of slavery and the slave trade, poverty, disease and hunger. It was the abolitionists, the opponents of slavery and the slave trade in America and Europe, who, after a long (19th - early 20th century) struggle, achieved the phased abolition of the slave trade first, and then slavery, including those of its forms that existed even before the colonial invasion. In the colonies, the great humanist, doctor and philosopher, Nobel Peace Prize winner in 1952 Albert Schweitzer glorified his name. Missionaries and doctors, engineers and teachers went to the colony. Among them were many real ascetics. In search of a better life, tens and hundreds of thousands of immigrants from Europe, mostly the poor, went there. Their descendants already in the first or second generations considered the colonies their homeland. Millions of "white Indians" lived in India, "white Africans" - in South Africa, Algeria (in France they were contemptuously called "black-footed"), white communities existed in many other Asian and African countries. The members of these communities occupied a higher social, economic and political position than the bulk of the inhabitants of the colonies, but there were also poor people among the white settlers. The collapse of the colonial system turned into personal tragedies for many inhabitants of the colonies. The mass exodus of white residents of Algeria, the Belgian Congo, the Portuguese colonies, Southern Rhodesia from these countries after they achieved independence was forced, and they were not really expected in the metropolises ...

Europe with its vast scientific, technical, cultural experience and capital, the energy of European settlers created in the colonies the foundations of modern transport and communications, mining and manufacturing and agriculture, education and medicine, and new forms of economic activity. The foundation of modern statehood was laid - legislative, executive and judicial power. The colonial powers were guided primarily by their own interests, but as a result, the formation and development of new social relations also took place, new socio-political forces appeared - mass parties, organizations, trade unions, capable of leading the struggle of the colonies for political liberation. Thus, against its own will, colonialism accelerated the political awakening of the peoples of the colonies, the rise of national liberation movements, the collapse of the world colonial system and the emergence of dozens of new independent states.

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In September 1919, a congress of representatives of the population was held in the city of Sivas. He announced the creation of a resistance movement led by Kemal Pasha and took the so-called "National Vow", which contained the terms of peace with the allies and the demand for the complete independence of Turkey. The Sultan became somewhat afraid of the Kemalists and therefore agreed to convene a parliament (Mejlis) in Istanbul. Kemal did not trust the Istanbul politicians and did not go to the capital, although he was elected to the Mejlis.

Indeed, already a month and a half after its convocation, the British sent their troops into the city, declared martial law, arrested 40 nationalist deputies and sent them into exile on the island of Malta. Turkey was again seized by strong excitement. Now it became clear to everyone that the Sultan was only a puppet in the hands of the British. Many deputies fled to the city of Angora (now Ankara), where, under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal, a parliament gathered that called itself the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (GNA). The assembly proclaimed itself the government of the country and declared that on the day the British occupied Istanbul, the power of the Sultan ceased to exist. With the exception of Istanbul and Smyrna, the Kemalists already then controlled the territory of the whole of Turkey.

In response, the Sultan declared the nationalist movement rebellious, and the head of the Muslim clergy (Sheikh-ul-Islam) called Kemal and his supporters apostates. The military court sentenced the general to death in absentia. He turned into an outlaw, a rebel and a traitor to Islam, who could be killed by any religious fanatic. The Sultan also declared “jihad” to the Kemalists, i.e. holy war, and created a special army to fight them. Representatives of the clergy were sent around the country to organize uprisings. Revolts took place everywhere, and Turkey was engulfed in a civil war, merciless on both sides. At the same time, the Greeks behaved as if they had become the masters of the country forever. They devastated the fertile valleys, drove out thousands of Turks who had become homeless. The Greeks advanced almost unopposed.

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Nachal yevropeizatsiyu Mustafa Kemal' s nebol'shoy, no ochen' kharakternoy veshchi. On opolchilsya na fesku — golovnoy ubor, stavshiy k tomu vremeni simvolom turok i v kakoy-to mere musul'man voobshche. Snachala on otmenil fesku v armii, zatem sam poyavilsya v shlyape, chem strashno potryas sograzhdan. V itoge Kemal' ob"yavil nosheniye feski prestupleniyem. Konechno, delo bylo ne stol'ko v bezobidnom golovnom ubore, skol'ko v bor'be so starymi obychayami. Po strane v svyazi s etim zapretom prokatilas' volna besporyadkov. Oni byli podavleny, a ikh uchastniki zhestoko nakazany. Sleduyushchim shagom turetskogo prezidenta bylo to, chto on raspustil vse musul'manskiye monastyri i religioznyye ordena i konfiskoval v pol'zu gosudarstva ikh imushchestvo. Traditsionno uvazhayemym v narode i vliyatel'nym dervisham (nishchenstvuyushchim musul'manskim monakham) bylo skazano, chto oni dolzhny trudit'sya i zarabatyvat' sebe na zhizn'. Im zapreshchalos' nosit' osobuyu odezhdu. Vmesto zakrytykh vlastyami musul'manskikh shkol byli sozdany gosudarstvennyye svetskiye uchebnyye zavedeniya, gde prepodavaniye religii zapreshchalos'. Ser'yoznyye izmeneniya proizoshli v oblasti prava. Do Kemalya zakony Turtsii opiralis' na dogmaty Korana, nazyvayemyye shariatom. Teper' byli vvedeny shveytsarskiy grazhdanskiy kodeks, ital'yanskiy ugolovnyy kodeks i germanskiy kommercheskiy kodeks. Izmeneny byli polozheniya chastnogo prava, kasavshiyesya braka, nasledovaniya i pr. Bylo zapreshcheno mnogozhenstvo. Kemal'-pasha pridaval ochen' vazhnoye znacheniye raskreposhcheniyu zhenshchin. On sdelal vse vozmozhnoye, chtoby turchanki lishilis' chadry (pokryvala, v kotoroye zhenshchiny musul'manskogo Vostoka pri vykhode iz doma zakutyvayutsya s golovy do nog, ostavlyaya lish' prosvet dlya glaz), i dobilsya uspekha. Simvolom priobshcheniya naroda voobshche i zhenshchin v chastnosti k zapadnoy tsivilizatsii on schital yevropeyskiye tantsy, kotoryye sam ochen' lyubil. Za kakoy-to desyatok let Turtsiya izmenilas', poyavilis' zhenshchiny-uchitelya, vrachi, yuristy i prochiye. V 1934 g. turetskiye zhenshchiny poluchili izbiratel'nyye prava, chto bylo neslykhannym dlya vostochnoy strany delom.

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Translation results

Mustafa Kemal began Europeanization with a small but very characteristic thing. He took up arms against the fez - a headdress that by that time had become a symbol of the Turks and, to some extent, Muslims in general. First, he abolished the fez in the army, then he himself appeared in a hat, which shocked his fellow citizens terribly. As a result, Kemal declared wearing a fez a crime. Of course, it was not so much a harmless headdress, but a fight against old customs. A wave of riots swept across the country in connection with this ban. They were suppressed, and their participants severely punished.

The next step of the Turkish president was that he dissolved all Muslim monasteries and religious orders and confiscated their property in favor of the state. Traditionally respected and influential dervishes (mendicant Muslim monks) were told that they should work and earn their living. They were forbidden to wear special clothes.

Instead of Muslim schools closed by the authorities, state secular educational institutions were created, where the teaching of religion was prohibited. Serious changes have taken place in the field of law. Before Kemal, the laws of Turkey were based on the tenets of the Koran, called Sharia. The Swiss Civil Code, the Italian Penal Code and the German Commercial Code have now been introduced. The provisions of private law relating to marriage, inheritance, etc. were changed. Polygamy was prohibited.

Kemal Pasha attached great importance to the emancipation of women. He did everything possible to make the Turkish women lose their veil (veil, in which the women of the Muslim East wrap themselves from head to toe when leaving the house, leaving only a gap for the eyes), and achieved success. He considered European dances, which he himself loved very much, to be a symbol of the introduction of the people in general and women in particular to Western civilization. For some ten years, Turkey has changed, there were women teachers, doctors, lawyers and others. In 1934, Turkish women received the right to vote, which was unheard of in an eastern country.

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Any doubts of the people about the correctness of the actions of the president for life caused severe repression. After an assassination attempt was made on his life by some religious fanatic, the so-called "independence courts" spread throughout Turkey. They did not spare even the heroes of the struggle for independence, Kemal's former comrades-in-arms, removing them from high posts, sending them into exile and even sentencing them to death. They were accused of conspiring with foreign enemies of Turkey and encroaching on the security of the state. In the most cruel way in the 20s. an uprising of the Kurds (the people living in Turkey, Iran, Iraq, etc.), striving for independence, was suppressed. The system of "Turkish homes" and then "people's houses" told every Turk about the outstanding talents and complete infallibility of Atatürk. It is clear that there was no question of any serious opposition to the policy of the dictator in Turkey at that time.

President Atatürk died in Istanbul on November 10, 1938 at the age of 57. His name is surrounded in today's Europeanized industrial Turkey with extraordinary honor and worship.

Hitler's coming to power in Germany in 1933 gave Mussolini a worthy ally. Confident in the support of Nazi Germany and the neutrality of France, Mussolini captured Ethiopia, which was accompanied by a savage massacre of the country's population. The joint desire for a new redivision of the world through another world war strengthened contacts between Mussolini and Hitler. Based on the alliance with Nazi Germany and the signed Rome agreements (Berlin-Rome axis), supplemented in 1937 by the Triple Alliance (Berlin-Rome-Tokyo), Mussolini proceeds to implement his aggressive plans in Europe. In 1936, in alliance with Hitler, he organized a fascist military revolt against the republican system in Spain. Taking advantage of the de facto neutrality of the countries of Western Europe and their complete non-intervention, the Duce carried out a broad intervention against Spain, as a result of which the regime of General Franco was established in the country.

To please Hitler, Mussolini supported the German takeover of Austria. From August 1938, imitating Hitler's national policy, he issued a whole series of anti-Semitic laws. True, the Italian fascist regime was much more liberal than the German one. Jews were not burned in ovens, they were not thrown into camps - during all the years of fascism in Italy, "only" 3,500 Jewish families were persecuted. Mass executions and torture began here only in 1943.

Huge power was concentrated in the hands of Mussolini: the head of the fascist party, the chairman of the council of ministers, the head of the internal police detachments. In September 1938, Mussolini was one of the organizers of the Munich Agreement, which predetermined the capture of Czechoslovakia by Germany and contributed to the outbreak of World War II.

In this war, Italy participated on the side of Nazi Germany, acting as an intermediary between Germany, England and France. Since 1943, for Mussolini and his regime, dark times have come. The successes of the Red Army activate the anti-fascist movement in Italy itself. There are dissatisfied even among the inner circle of the Duce. In July 1943, the United States and England, allies of the USSR in the anti-Hitler coalition, began military operations in Sicily, and then in Italy itself. This operation ended with the capitulation of Italy on September 3, 1943, signed on the island of Sicily by King Victor Emmanuel III. The Fascist Grand Council votes against Mussolini. The king of Italy, who had not shown himself in the political life of the country for almost two decades, in September 1943 ordered his punishers to arrest Mussolini. Soon, however, he was released by German paratroopers and brought to Germany. This operation was organized by SS Sturmbannführer Otto Skorzeny, one of the people closest to Hitler. After negotiations with Hitler, Mussolini was sent under German guard to northern Italy to lead the Salo Republic, the Italian Social Republic, hastily created to cover German communications. Its capital was the small resort town of Salo in Lombardy. The main slogans that Mussolini puts forward at this time is to restore the desecrated honor, dignity and greatness

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In 1933, the National Socialist Party headed by Hitler came to power in Germany, proclaiming one of its goals the conquest of "living space" for the German people. The Western powers tried to "negotiate" with Hitler. In September 1938, England, France, Italy and Germany, which had already captured Austria, concluded an agreement in Munich that allowed the Germans to occupy the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia. The fascist government of Mussolini in Italy was already on the path of aggression: Libya and Ethiopia were subjugated, in 1939 - small Albania, whose territory was considered as the starting point for an attack on Yugoslavia and Greece. In May of the same year, Germany and Italy signed the so-called "Pact of Steel" - an agreement on direct mutual assistance in case of war.

Preparing for war, back in 1938, Hitler ordered the construction of the so-called Western Wall - a system of powerful fortifications stretching thousands of kilometers from the border with Switzerland, along the German-French and German-Belgian borders to Holland. The Western Wall was built directly opposite the French Maginot Line, named after the French Minister of Defense. The German command developed various options for military operations in Europe, including Operation Sea Lion - the invasion of England.

In August 1939, a non-aggression agreement was signed between Germany and the Soviet Union and, at the same time, secret additions on the division of "spheres of influence" in Eastern Europe, one of the main points of which was the "Polish question".

England and France began a retaliatory war against Germany on September 3, 1939, followed by the countries that were part of the British Empire: Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, Canada. The USA and Italy were not at war yet, but it was obvious that the start of a general war was a matter of time...

From September 1939 until the spring of 1940, the so-called "strange war" was waged in Western Europe. The French army and the English expeditionary force that had landed in France, on the one hand, and the German army, on the other, sluggishly fired at each other, did not take active steps. The lull was false, because the Germans simply feared a war "on two fronts."