Tuesday, September 15, 2020

News update 15/07/2015 1

Historia och tid
Vägen som mänskligheten färdades låg i ett visst utrymme och tog en viss tid. Före början av historiska epoker som lämnade skriftliga källor - krönikor, dagböcker, brev - är det viktigaste beviset på "platser" arkeologiskt material som erhållits under utgrävningar av bosättningar och städer, bevarade verktyg och redskap, benrester, ritningar på stenar, mynt, etc. d. Det är dock mycket svårt att fastställa tidpunkten för deras uppkomst. Även om det är möjligt att ta reda på varaktigheten av existensen av ett objekt av intresse för oss från lagren av kustnära sediment som har bevarat spår av årstidernas växlingar, eller från trädens årsringar, kan det vara svårt att fastställa dess absoluta ålder. Lika osäker tills nyligen var varaktigheten av mänsklighetens existens. Vetenskapen kunde ge ett övertygande svar på denna fråga endast som ett resultat av att tränga in i mikrokosmos hemligheter, dvs. först på 1900-talet.

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Det finns två perioder i mänsklighetens historia - den primitiva och den period då komplext organiserade klasssamhällen existerade. Den första av dem varade i många hundra tusen år, den andra - inte länge. I primitiva tider blev människan människa i ordets fulla bemärkelse, hennes kultur uppstod. Kollektiv av människor var relativt små och enkelt organiserade, med ett primitivt sätt att leva, varför de kallas primära - primitiva. Till en början, för att få sin egen mat, var folk engagerade i att samla och jaga med hjälp av stenredskap. Sedan började de odla de växter de behövde för sig själva, föda upp husdjur, bygga bostäder och skapa bosättningar.

Människor i primitiva samhällen var lika i sin status, med samma rättigheter och skyldigheter, bland dem fanns inga rika och fattiga. Relationer mellan familjer och individer bestämdes av släktskap, och normen i detta samhälle var hjälp och ömsesidigt stöd.

Enligt de material som människor tillverkade verktyg av delar arkeologer in historien i tre "åldrar": sten, brons och järn. Stenåldern var den längsta - den började för cirka 2,5 miljoner år sedan och slutade 3 tusen år f.Kr. Bronsåldern varade i mer än 2,5 tusen år, och ungefär i mitten av det andra årtusendet f.Kr. Järnåldern är över oss, och vi lever i den. Dessa åldrar, särskilt brons- och järnåldern, inträffade inte samtidigt i olika delar av jorden, någonstans tidigare, någonstans senare. Den längsta perioden - stenåldern - är indelad i flera epoker: äldre stenåldern, eller paleolitikum (2,5 miljoner - 12 000 år sedan), medelstenåldern eller mesolitikum (12 000-8000 f.Kr.), ny stenålder eller neolitikum (8000-3000 f.Kr.).
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Så, det mesta av mänsklighetens historia faller just på perioden av primitivitet. Siffrorna säger lite för vår fantasi. Om denna kolossala period komprimeras till en dag, visar det sig att i början av dagen (vid 0000 timmar) började människor som fortfarande behöll tecknen på sina djurförfäder att göra de första verktygen. Den "upprättstående mannen", Pithecanthropus, levde mellan 14.00 och 19.00, och den urgamla varianten av "Homo sapiens", neandertalaren levde mellan 19.00 och 23.30. Den sena perioden av stenåldern - yngre stenåldern - började mycket nära slutet av dagen, klockan 23:55. Klockan 23:56 började bronsåldern och stater med sina städer, skrivande, ständigt utvecklande teknologi och ett komplext organiserat samhälle dök upp, och även då bara på små fläckar av jorden, för bara 3 minuter sedan.

Det är svårt att tro nu, men för drygt hundra år sedan trodde folk att deras utseende hade förblivit oförändrat sedan människans utseende. Naturligtvis var det välkänt att olika folk skiljer sig från varandra i kultur, levnadssätt, seder. Men alla betraktades som ättlingar till den första mannen och den första kvinnan som skapades av gudarna, oavsett om de var kristnas, muslimers gudar eller anhängare av Buddhas läror. När mänskliga ben hittades under utgrävningar som skilde sig från moderna, ansågs de vara kvarlevorna av särskilt starka människor eller omvänt sjuka människor. På 40-talet. under förra seklet hittades benen av en av den moderna människans förfäder, en neandertalman, i Tyskland, som förväxlades med kvarlevorna av en rysk kosack, en deltagare i Napoleonkrigen, och en respekterad vetenskapsman sa att dessa var benen av en sjuk gammal man, som också slogs i huvudet flera gånger.

1859 publicerades Charles Darwins bok "The Origin of Species", som inte talade om människans ursprung, utan antydde att människan, liksom andra levande varelser, också kunde förändras, utvecklas från enklare till mer komplexa former. Från det ögonblicket började en kamp mellan de som ansåg att människan kunde komma från en apa, och deras motståndare. Naturligtvis handlade det inte om gorillor, schimpanser eller orangutanger som vi känner till, utan om några utdöda arter, förfäder gemensamma för människor och apor.
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På 1800-talet mycket få rester av skelett från de äldsta människorna var kända. Många har nu upptäckts. De äldsta hittades i Afrika, därför tror man att det var på denna kontinent som utvecklingen av människoapor, som varade i många miljoner år, ledde till att människan dök upp. För 3,5-1,8 miljoner år sedan var Afrikas stäpp redan strövande varelser som kallades Australopithecus - sydliga apor. De hade en liten hjärna och massiva käkar, men de kunde redan röra sig i upprätt läge och hålla en pinne eller sten i händerna.

Forskare tror att de första stenverktygen dök upp för cirka 2,5 miljoner år sedan. Det var stenar med vassa kanter och flingor från dem. Sådana verktyg kan skära en gren, flå ett dött djur, klyva ett ben eller gräva upp en rot ur marken. Den som gjorde dem fick namnet ^händig man* (homo habilis). Nu anses han vara den första representanten för mänskligheten.

Den "händige mannen" rörde sig på fötterna och hans händer var anpassade inte bara för att hålla en pinne eller sten, utan också för att tillverka verktyg. Dessa gamla människor visste ännu inte hur de skulle tala; som apor gav de varandra signaler med rop, gester, grimaser. Förutom växtföda åt de kött från djur som de förmodligen jagade. Deras grupper var små och bestod av flera hanar, honor med ungar och tonåringar.

För ungefär 1 miljon år sedan dök en ny art upp - "rätad man" (homo erectus), Pithecanthropus, dvs. apa-människa. Denna varelse liknade fortfarande sina djurförfäder. Den var täckt av hår, hade en låg panna och pannryggar som stack kraftigt framåt. Men storleken på hans hjärna var redan ganska stor och närmade sig storleken på en modern mänsklig hjärna. Den "rätade mannen" lärde sig att göra olika verktyg av sten - stora yxor av rätt form, skrapor, fräsar. Med sådana verktyg var det möjligt att hugga, skära, planera, gräva, döda djur, ta bort skinn från dem, slakta kadaver.

Utvecklingen av arbetsförmåga, förmågan att tänka, planera sina aktiviteter gjorde det möjligt för dessa människor att anpassa sig till livet under olika klimatförhållanden. De bodde i de kalla regionerna i norra Kina och Europa, i tropikerna på ön Java, Afrikas stäpper. Under den "upprätade mannens" existens började istiden. På grund av bildandet av glaciärer sjönk nivån på världshavet, landbroar uppstod mellan tidigare åtskilda vattenområden, genom vilka människor kunde tränga in, till exempel till ön Java, där de första benen av Pithecanthropus var hittades.

Lägren låg längs floder och sjöar, på platser där stora djurhjordar levde. Pithecanthropes levde ibland i grottor, men inte i djupet, där det var farligt, utan vid utgången. Djärva jägare, vars byte var stora och starka djur, drev hjordar av rådjur, tjurar, elefanter till klippor, raviner eller raviner, där de dödade dem med spjut och stenar. Bytet delades mellan alla. Primitiva människor började använda eld, som värmde dem, skyddade dem från djur och hjälpte dem att jaga. På elden började de laga mat som tidigare äts rå. Jakt på stora djur, skydd mot faror, förflyttning till nya territorier - allt detta krävde många människors samlade ansträngningar. Deras lag måste vara tillräckligt många och sammanhållna. Komplikationen av livsstilen ledde till att de äldre började undervisa de yngre, och tonåringar stannade längre än tidigare med sina föräldrar och släktingar. Dessa människor visste redan hur de skulle tala. Och ändå gick både deras fysiska utveckling och utvecklingen av kultur väldigt långsamt: Pithecanthropes, liksom de verktyg de skapade, nästan oförändrade, existerade i cirka 1 miljon år.

четверг, 24 марта 2022 г.

Youtube 2022


The Etruscans created an interesting and peculiar culture in Italy that requires a special story (see the article “Etruria and the Etruscans”). Here it should be noted the huge influence that they had on the history and culture of Ancient Rome. The Etruscans stood in the 7th-6th centuries. BC. at a higher level of development than the Romans, therefore, with the accession of the Etruscan dynasty in Rome, both the appearance of the city and the very nature of royal power change. For example, Servius Tullius surrounded the city with a fortress wall and carried out a very important reform, similar to the reform of Solon in Athens. He divided all the inhabitants of Rome into five property classes and distributed, depending on their condition, the rights and duties of the population of the city. The reign of the last king - Tarquinius the Proud - remained in the memory of the Romans as a cruel tyranny. The fact is that the Etruscan kings sought to appropriate all the power in the community. The idea of ​​the highest indivisible power - "empires" - and the external signs of its distinction appear: the kings wear a purple robe, sit on an ivory throne, they are accompanied by a retinue of lictors of 24 people carrying fascia - a bunch of rods with an ax in the middle. Fasci meant the king's right to decide on the life and death of any member of the community. This strengthening of the power of the kings caused dissatisfaction with the tribal nobility, who sat in the senate, with whom the kings conferred less and less and against whose will they pursued their policy. Therefore, both Tarquinius the Ancient and Servius Tullius were killed, and the nobility raised an uprising against Tarquinius the Proud, having managed to attract the Roman people to their side. Tarquinius the Proud and his entire family were expelled from Rome, and royal power was forever abolished. Anyone who tried to restore it was declared an enemy of the Roman people and was subject to the death penalty. This event, according to ancient Roman writers, took place in 510 BC.

Instead of kings in Rome, they began to elect annually two officials - consuls. Consuls, i.e. conferring together, received the empire - the highest indivisible power that kings used to have. But since this power was equally vested in both officials and their tenure was limited to a period of one year, the consuls found themselves under the strong control of the senate, whose membership was for life. It was the Senate from that time that had full political power in the community. Gradually, the number of officials increased, and in case of great military danger, they began to appoint a dictator - the sole ruler - for a period of six months.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1-CdxhF6wuc
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=57l41HS0Exw
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=agMC2k6_yu4

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pzoPNnWugUk
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https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCnMMz8g9NpW9L2QM3xwGVLg
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KDJLczC23Ss
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9p_tjfdmpPo
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=142fRiQQKO0https://youtu.be/mwW2FNsvCUc

https://youtu.be/2Bo980_9fPw

https://youtu.be/ZrsUdFiK11g

https://youtu.be/COKSUh7chBg

https://youtu.be/OanqdP0TMHU

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sI5THcNWjJU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4OJq77yBgSw
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCEsN9amKD8ebfcn_81Hhq3A
https://yandex.ru/collections/card/5d1254c2c9270d6dfc74a949/
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https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCJpM1R7peNJFhRqbGLDf-YQ
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCyRAEsEIMnziOJrS1ywz29A
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=stNjCg6X-5Y
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TwwhitoSUkg&t=2s
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https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/la-cobla-vents-de-riella-el-grup-musical-fenya-rai-i-mitja-munez/?published=t
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5OBJebEOKqM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OEXlPPGxLa0

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uF70wcuRnO8\
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https://youtu.be/AaJYlkkAPQE

https://youtu.be/IvjpDk_saEU

https://youtu.be/24RhuNBOIIg

In the early Roman Republic (V-IV centuries BC), in addition to dividing citizens into five property classes, there was also a division into two classes: patricians and plebeians. At that time, the Roman aristocrats were called patricians, from among whom magistrates were elected - persons who held the highest positions. The plebeians - the mass, the people - were a free, but not full-fledged population of Rome. Many plebeians were turned into slaves for debts. They did not take part in the administration of the state. From the very beginning of the 5th c. BC. bitter struggle broke out between the patricians and the plebeians. The plebeians fought for the destruction of enslaving debt slavery and the establishment of civil equality. This struggle went on for two centuries.

From the very beginning of its history, Rome waged constant wars with its neighbors, either to maintain its independence or to seize foreign land. These wars required the exertion of the forces of the whole people, so the patricians were forced to make some concessions to the plebeians. Their first victory was to obtain the right to elect tribunes of the people, who were supposed to protect the plebs from the arbitrariness of the patricians. With the help of the tribunes of the people, the plebeians were able to increase pressure on the patrician nobility. In 451-450 years. BC. a record of laws was made, called the "Laws of HP tables." They did not abolish enslavement, but limited the arbitrariness of the patrician magistrates and laid the foundation for Roman civil law.

As already mentioned, the struggle of the patricians and plebeians went on simultaneously with the struggle of Rome, first to strengthen its position among the Latin tribes in Latium, then with the Italic tribes of Central Italy, the Greek policies of Southern Italy and the Etruscan cities. These wars were difficult, and the Romans did not always win victories. In 390 BC Rome was captured by the Gauls - tribes who came to Italy from the north and settled in the Po Valley. The Gauls destroyed and burned the city, and only a small detachment of Roman youth, led by Mark Manlius, managed to fortify itself on the Capitol. The Gauls were unable to capture it and besieged it for a long time. According to legend, when the Gauls tried to break into the Capitol at night, the sacred geese of the temple of Juno woke up the sleeping guards and saved Rome (see article "Gauls"). The Gauls, satisfied with a large ransom, went to the north of Italy.